Foundational Diagnostic Standards
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed., text rev.; DSM–5–TR).
Epidemiology and Prevalence
Polanczyk, G., de Lima, M. S., Horta, B. L., Biederman, J., & Rohde, L. A. (2007). The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: A systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164(6), 942–948. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.942
Neurobiology and Genetics
Thapar, A., & Cooper, M. (2016). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The Lancet, 387(10024), 1240–1250. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00238-X
Faraone, S. V., & Larsson, H. (2019). Genetics of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 24, 562–575. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-018-0070-0
Cortese, S., et al. (2012). Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: A meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169(10), 1038–1055. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11101521
Executive Function Theory
Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry, 57(11), 1336–1346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.02.006
Barkley, R. A. (2015). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed.).
Treatment and Intervention
Cortese, S., et al. (2018). Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(9), 727–738. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30269-4
Young, S., et al. (2020). Psychological therapies for adults with ADHD: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 80, 101884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2025.121107
Public Health & Practice Standards
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2018). ADHD: Diagnosis and management (NG87). https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng87
National Institute of Mental Health. ADHD Overview. https://www.nimh.nih.gov
Conceptual Model (Amen Brain Types)
Amen, D. G. (2013). Healing ADD: The breakthrough program that allows you to see and heal the 7 types of ADD.
Note: The Amen Brain Type model is presented on this site as a conceptual framework. It is not part of DSM diagnostic criteria and remains debated within academic psychiatry.